home » Health » Proceedings of d Locke. What are the properties of these material objects? But it is impossible to finally admit that the material substance is the only one, because Locke does not completely solve the question of spiritual substance in his reasoning.

Proceedings of d Locke. What are the properties of these material objects? But it is impossible to finally admit that the material substance is the only one, because Locke does not completely solve the question of spiritual substance in his reasoning.

English philosopher, born in the family of a lawyer. He studied medicine, was the family doctor of Earl Shaftesbury, a prominent public figure during the Restoration. Together with him he emigrated abroad (in 1683), returning to England only after the revolution of 1688-1689. Locke's life proceeded mainly in the era of the second, glorious English Revolution and after it. He took an active part in the ongoing political and ideological struggle as a philosopher, economist, public figure, who sought in his writings to substantiate the legitimacy of a compromise between the two ruling classes of English society.

B. Russell called J. Locke the most successful of all philosophers (History of Western Philosophy. M., 1959. S. 624], since his views in philosophy and political views were understood and welcomed by many of his contemporaries. During Locke's lifetime, England was busy radical political reforms aimed at limiting the power of the king, creating a parliamentary form of government, eliminating authoritarianism and ensuring religious freedom.Locke is the embodiment of these aspirations both in politics and in philosophy.His main works are: "An Essay on Human Understanding" (1690), "Two treatises on state government" (1690), "Letters on religious tolerance" (1685-1692), "Some thoughts on education" (1693).

Locke focuses on the theory of knowledge in his philosophical writings. This reflected the general situation in the philosophy of that time, when the latter began to be more concerned with individual consciousness, the personal interests of people. Locke substantiates the epistemological orientation of his philosophy by pointing out the need for maximum approximation of research to the interests of man, since knowledge of one's cognitive abilities protects us from skepticism and mental inactivity. In An Essay on Human Understanding, he describes the philosopher's task as that of a scavenger who removes rubbish from our knowledge.

Locke's concept of knowledge as an empiricist is based on sensationalistic principles: there is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses, all human knowledge is ultimately derived from sensory experience. The treatise An Essay on Human Understanding begins with a critique of the conceptions of the innateness of ideas that were common at that time in continental philosophy. Here he has in mind primarily the views of Descartes and the Cambridge Platonists. Locke shows that all our knowledge - mathematical, logical, metaphysical, etc. - is not innate, but has an experimental origin. Even the logical laws of identity and contradiction are unknown to children and savages. Ideas and concepts are not born with us, just like the arts and sciences, wrote Locke. There are no innate moral principles either. He believes that the great principle of morality (the golden rule) is more praised than observed. He also denies the innateness of the idea of God, which also arises empirically.

Based on this critique of the innateness of our knowledge, Locke, like any sensualist, believes that at the birth of a person, his mind is a “tabula rasa” (“blank slate”) - white paper without any signs and ideas. The only source of ideas is experience, which is divided into external and internal. External experience is the sensations that fill the “blank slate” with various scripts and which we receive through sight, hearing, touch, smell and other senses. Internal experience is ideas about one's own activity within oneself, about various operations of our thinking, about one's mental states - emotions, desires, etc. All of them are called reflection, reconciliation. By ideas, Locke understands not only abstract concepts, but also sensations, fantastic images, and so on. Behind ideas, according to Locke, are things.

Ideas, sensations are divided by Locke into two classes: 1) ideas of primary qualities; 2) ideas of secondary qualities. Primary qualities are properties inherent in bodies that are inalienable from them under any circumstances, namely: extension, movement, rest, form, number, density. Primary qualities are preserved in all changes of bodies. They are in the things themselves and are therefore called real qualities. Secondary qualities are not found in the things themselves. They are always changeable, delivered to our consciousness by the senses. These include: color, sound, taste, smell, etc. At the same time, Locke emphasizes that secondary qualities are not illusory. Although their reality is subjective and resides in a person, it is nevertheless generated by those features of the primary qualities that cause a certain activity of the sense organs. There is something in common between primary and secondary qualities: in both cases, ideas are formed through the so-called impulse. For example, a violet, through the impulses of particles of matter, creates in the mind the ideas of blue color and smell.

Ideas obtained from two sources of experience (sensations and reflection) constitute the foundation, the material for the further process of cognition. All of them form a complex of simple ideas: bitter, sour, cold, hot, etc. Simple ideas do not contain other ideas and cannot be created by us. In addition to these, there are complex ideas that are produced by the mind when it composes and combines simple ones. Complex ideas can be unusual things, such as unicorns and satyrs, which have no real existence, but can always be analyzed as a mixture of simple ideas acquired through experience. The concept of the emergence and formation of primary and secondary qualities is an example of the application of analytical and synthetic methods. Through analysis, simple ideas are formed, through synthesis, complex ones. In the synthetic activity of combining simple ideas into complex ones, the activity of the human mind is manifested. The complex ideas formed by the synthetic activity of human thought constitute a number of varieties. One of them is substance.

According to Locke, the substance should be understood as separate things - iron, stone, sun, man, representing examples of empirical substances, as well as philosophical concepts - matter, spirit. The concept of substance is a problem for Locke. In Chapter XXIII of Book II of the "Experience ..." he points out that groups of simple ideas are constantly together, i.e. form the objects we call trees, apples, dogs, and so on. He says that, without imagining how these simple ideas can exist in themselves, we become accustomed to suppose some substratum on the basis of which they exist and from which they flow, and which we therefore call substance. Since Locke claims that all our concepts are derived from experience, one would expect him to reject the concept of substance as meaningless, but he does not, introducing the division of substances into empirical - any things, and philosophical substance - universal matter, the basis of which unknowable.

In Locke's theory of perception, language plays an important role. Much attention was paid to the role of language by previous philosophers - Bacon, Spinoza, Hobbes. Locke devotes the third book of his "Experience ..." to this issue. For Locke, language has two functions - civil and philosophical. The first is a means of communication between people, the second is the accuracy of the language, expressed in its effectiveness. In the chapter “On the Misuse of Words,” Locke shows that the imperfection and confusion of a language devoid of content is used by illiterate, ignorant people and alienates society from true knowledge. Locke emphasizes an important feature in the development of society, when scholastic pseudo-knowledge flourishes in periods of stagnation or crisis, on which many loafers and charlatans profit.

According to Locke, language is a system of signs, consisting of sensory labels of our ideas, which enable us to communicate with each other when we wish. He argues that ideas can be intelligible in themselves, without words, and words are just a social expression of thought; they have meaning, meaning, if supported by ideas.

Locke explains how we can arrive at general words that denote general ideas by referring to the concept of abstraction. All things that exist, he says, are individual, but as we develop from childhood to adulthood, we observe common qualities in people and things. Seeing many individuals, for example, and separating from them the circumstances of time and space and any other particular ideas, we can arrive at the general idea of "man." This is the process of abstraction. This is how other general ideas are formed - animal, plant. All of them are the result of the activity of the mind, they are based on the similarity of the things themselves.

The problem of the types of knowledge and its reliability is closely related to the above. According to the degree of accuracy, Locke distinguishes the following types of knowledge: intuitive, demonstrative, sensitive. Intuitive knowledge is self-evident truths. Examples are statements: “white is not black”, “a triangle is not a circle”, etc. Demonstrative knowledge is conclusions, proofs, they form a deductive type of knowledge. Intuitive and demonstrative knowledge constitute speculative knowledge, which has the quality of indisputability. The third type of knowledge is formed on the basis of sensations, feelings arising from the perception of individual objects. They are significantly lower in their reliability than the first two. There is, according to Locke, and unreliable knowledge, probable, or opinion. However, because we sometimes cannot have clear and distinct knowledge, it does not follow that we cannot know things. It is impossible to know everything, Locke believed, it is necessary to know the most important for our behavior.

In the work "Two treatises on state government" (1690), Locke sets out his doctrine of the state. Like Hobbes, he views people in the state of nature as free, equal, and independent. It proceeds from the idea of the struggle of the individual for his self-preservation. But unlike Hobbes, Locke develops the theme of private property and labor, which he considers as inalienable attributes of natural man. He believes that it has always been characteristic of a natural person to own private property, which was determined by his selfish inclinations inherent in him by nature. Without private property, according to Locke, it is impossible to satisfy the basic needs of man. Nature can give the greatest benefit only when it becomes a personal property. In turn, property is closely related to labor. Labor and diligence are the main sources of value creation.

The transition of people from the state of nature to the state is dictated, according to Locke, by the insecurity of rights in the state of nature. But freedom and property must also be preserved in the conditions of the state, since this is what it comes into being for. At the same time, the supreme state power cannot be arbitrary, unlimited.

Locke is credited with putting forward, for the first time in the history of political thought, the idea of dividing the supreme power into legislative, executive and federal, since only in conditions of their independence from each other can the rights of the individual be ensured. Locke actually acts as a theorist of constitutional regimes, in which laws and executive power are subject to justice and natural law. The political system becomes a combination of the people and the state, in which each of them must play its role in conditions of balance and control.

Locke is a supporter of the separation of church and state, as well as an opponent of the subordination of knowledge to revelation, defending "natural religion". The historical turmoil experienced by Locke prompted him to pursue a new idea of religious tolerance at that time. It presupposes the need for a separation between the civil and religious spheres: the civil authority cannot legislate in the religious sphere. As for religion, it should not interfere with the actions of civil power, exercised by a social contract between the people and the secular state.

Locke also applied his sensationalistic theory in the field of education, believing that if an individual cannot receive the necessary impressions and ideas in society, then social conditions must be changed. In his works on pedagogy, he developed the ideas of forming a physically strong and spiritually whole person who acquires knowledge that is useful for society.

In his "Experience ..." Locke argued that good is that which gives lasting pleasure and reduces suffering. This is the happiness of man. At the same time, Locke emphasizes that moral goodness is the voluntary subordination of the human will to the laws of both society and nature, which are in the divine will - the true basis of morality. Harmony between private and public interests is achieved in prudent and pious conduct.

Locke's philosophy had an enormous impact on the entire intellectual thought of the West, both during the life of the philosopher and in subsequent periods. Under the influence of his philosophy, the views of Toland, Condillac, French materialists were formed.

The influence of Locke is felt until the 20th century. His thoughts gave impetus to the development of associative psychology. Locke's concept of education had a great influence on the advanced pedagogical ideas of the 18th-19th centuries.

JOHN LOCK.

The first, in the most general form, the task of studying the origin, reliability and scope of human knowledge was set by the English philosopher, a doctor by education and a politician by the nature of his practical activity, John Locke (1632-17-4). In his main scientific work "Experiment on the human mind" (1690) Locke set himself the goal of comprehensively substantiating the proposition about the empirical origin of all human knowledge. The first question that he had to solve on the way to the implementation of his plan was to express his attitude to the widespread theory of "innate ideas". D. Locke categorically rejects the possibility of the existence of such ideas.

Since D. Locke denied the existence of innate ideas, the following question naturally arose: what is the source of these ideas? Answering this question, the English philosopher clearly formulates the initial principle of empiricism. "All our knowledge is based on experience, from it, in the end, our observation proceeds, directed either to external. media, or to the internal actions of our soul, perceived and reflective ourselves, deliver to our mind all the material we w leyai i T am same. From 128).

As can be seen from D. Locke's statement, he distinguishes two types of experience: external experience, consisting of a set of definitions, and internal experience, formed from the mind's observations of hell by its internal activity. The source of the external is the objective material world, which affects the human senses and causes sensations. On this basis, the English thinker argues, simple ideas arise in us that have a real (ie, objective) content, consistent with the things themselves.

External experience or reflection is an activity on his mind when he is processing the ideas he has acquired. Explaining his understanding of inner experience or reflection, D. Locke emphasizes the idea that each person has this source of ideas entirely inside se- for "that he" has nothing to do with external objects, and although this source is not a feeling ..., ... nevertheless, it is very similar to it and can be quite accurately called an internal feeling "(" Goal1 same. P.129). This characteristic of inner experience is intended to emphasize the great importance of the activity of the mind, reflection. But still, justifying the main position of empiricism, D. Locke repeatedly emphasized that the activity of the mind, which becomes the subject of reflection, proceeds only on the basis of sensory data that arise in a person before the ideas of reflection. And in general, the soul cannot think before the senses provide it with ideas for thinking.

However, when receiving ideas of reflection, our mind is not passive, but active. He performs certain actions of his own by which, from simple ideas as the material and foundation for the rest, others are built. Thanks to this faculty, the mind has more opportunity to diversify and reduce the objects of its thinking indefinitely longer than what sensations or reflection have delivered to it. At the same time, D. Locke clearly indicates that the mind cannot go beyond those primary ideas that are formed on the basis of sensations. External experience is the basis, the base of all subsequent knowledge.

According to the methods of formation and formation of the whole idea, according to Locke, they are divided into simple and complex. Simple ideas contain monotonous representations and perceptions and do not fall apart into any constituent elements. Locke refers to simple ideas as ideas of space, form, rest, movement, light, etc. In terms of content, simple ideas, in turn, are divided into two groups. To the first group, he refers ideas that reflect the primary or original qualities of external objects, which are completely inseparable from these objects, in whatever state they are, and which our senses constantly find in every particle of matter, enough to perceive the volume. Such, for example, are density, extension, form, movement, rest. These qualities act on the sense organs by impetus and give rise in us to simple ideas of solidity, extension, form, movement, rest, or number. Locke claims that only the ideas of the primary qualities of bodies are similar to them and their prototypes really exist in the bodies themselves, that is, the ideas of these qualities accurately reflect the objective properties of these bodies.

To the second group he refers ideas reflecting secondary qualities, which, in his opinion, are not found in things themselves, but are forces that evoke in us various sensations with their primary qualities. (i.e. volume, shape, cohesion and movement of imperceptible particles of matter). Locke refers to secondary qualities such qualities of things as color, sound, taste, etc. Thus, the manifestation of secondary qualities is associated by the English thinker not with the objective world itself, but with its perception in human consciousness.

Complex ideas, according to Locke's teachings, are formed from simple ideas as a result of the self-activity of the mind. D. Locke identifies three main way of education complex ideas: 1. Combining several simple ideas into one complex idea; 2. Bringing together two ideas, whether simple or complex, and comparing them with each other so as to review them at once, but not combine them into one; 3. Separation of ideas from all other ideas accompanying them in their real validity.

In accordance with the nature of education, Locke distinguishes three types of complex ideas according to their content. 1. Ideas of modes or "empirical substances". Here it includes ideas that are either dependent on substances(primary bases), or their properties of the latter. 2. relationship ideas, consisting in the consideration and comparison of one idea with another and the reduction to ideas of the relations "brother, father" of cause and effect, identity and difference, etc. 3. ideas of substance, that is, a certain "substrate", "carrier", "support" of simple ideas that do not have an independent existence of a substance are divided into simple ("man") and collective (army, people). For a better understanding of the followers of the teachings of Locke, it is necessary to take a closer look at his concept of substance. As stated earlier, Locke meant substance a substrate, a carrier of a known quality or set of qualities. What is the nature of this substratum: material or spiritual? He recognizes the presence of the most reliable kind of knowledge, according to Locke, - intuition. Intuitive knowledge is a clear and distinct perception of the correspondence or inconsistency of two ideas through their direct comparison. In second place after intuition, in terms of reliability, Locke has demonstrative knowledge. In this kind of cognition, the perception of the correspondence or non-correspondence of two ideas takes place not directly, but indirectly, through a system of premises and conclusions. The third kind of knowledge sensual or sensitive cognition. This kind of knowledge is limited to the perception of individual objects of the external world. In terms of its reliability, it stands at the lowest level of knowledge and does not achieve clarity and distinctness. Through intuitive cognition we cognize our being, through demonstrative cognition - the existence of God through sensitive cognition - the existence of other things.

forest and thinking substance. But it does not establish an unambiguous relationship between the nii. They seem to be side by side, although they do not touch each other.

Of particular interest is also developed by Dhaka coyaception of abstraction or the theory of formation of the most general concepts (Kovceptov). It is the nature of this theory that makes it possible to define Locke's doctrine of complex ideas. like kovceptualism.

The problem of abstraction in the history of philosophy was considered, first of all, as the problem of the relationship between the general and the individual in cognition, closely related to the definition of the role of language. In medieval philosophy, this problem was solved from two diametrically opposed positions - vominalism and realism. The nominalists argued that the common is simply name - yomei(title). In reality, there are only single things. Realists, on the other hand, argued that the general idea exists in reality, and the individual is only a reflection of the real existence of the idea of these things. D. Locke seeks to find a new way to solve this problem based on the theory of knowledge. According to Locke's views, general ideas are formed by abstracting from those simple ideas or features of objects that are common to all objects of a given group. So, for example, if from the complex ideas of specific people Peter, Paul, Ivan, etc. exclude only what is special in each of them, and keep only what is them general and then this general is denoted by the word "man", then the abstract idea of "man" will be obtained.

Thus, according to Locke, only ideal singular things exist. General ideas are the product of the abstracting activity of the mind. Words that express the general are only signs of general ideas. Locke's conceptualism represents a severely weakened medieval nominalism by strengthening materialistic tendencies. We have repeatedly emphasized that Locke was an empiricist, but his empiricism was not simplistic. The theory of abstraction shows that Locke attached great importance to the rational form of knowledge. This rationalistic bias is clearly manifested in his doctrine of three kinds of knowledge: intuitive, demonstrative and experimental.

Read the biography of the philosopher: briefly about life, basic ideas, teachings, philosophy
JOHN LOCK
(1632-1704)

English philosopher, founder of liberalism. In "Experiment on the human mind" (1690) developed an empirical theory of knowledge. Locke's socio-political concept is based on natural law and the social contract theory. In pedagogy, he proceeded from the decisive influence of the environment on education. Founder of associative psychology.

On August 29, 1632, in the small town of Wrington, located in the west of England, not far from Bristol, the future great philosopher John Locke was born into the family of a provincial lawyer.

He was brought up in a Puritan family that was in opposition both to the Anglican Church that dominated the country and to the absolute monarchy of Charles I.

Locke's father was a squadron captain in Cromwell's parliamentary army during the Civil War. He owned a considerable fortune, but during the war he lost a large part of his savings, most likely due to the generosity and generosity that his famous son often mentioned. Little is known about Locke's mother, née King.

In his youth, John Locke was influenced by the political ideals of his father, who defended the sovereignty of the people, exercised through Parliament.

The revolution opened the way for Locke to education. On the recommendation of his father's commander, Colonel Alexander Popham, he was enrolled at Westminster School in 1646. In 1652, when Locke, one of the best students of the school, entered Oxford University, he addresses the following words to A. Popham "The whole nation looks to you as the defender of its laws and freedom."

In 1655, Locke received a bachelor of arts degree, and three years later earned a master's degree.

At Oxford, Locke became close to the enthusiasts of the new scientific direction, which opposed the scholastic scholarship that dominated the English universities. Even before 1658, he takes a deep interest in the work of John Wilkins, a scientist "with a passion for scientific experimentation unseen in any man since the time of Bacon." Richard Lowe, a supporter of the experimental study of the causes of diseases, who pioneered the use of blood transfusion, fascinates Locke with medical studies. Here, in Oxford, Locke becomes a friend of Robert Boyle and, together with him, conducts natural science experiments. Boyle first aroused his interest in the philosophy of Descartes and Gassendi.

At the same time, John is occupied with the question of the relationship of church to state. Locke devoted his first essay to this subject, which, however, was never published. In 1664, Locke, as secretary, accompanied the English ambassador Walter Fehn to Berlin. From his letters to friends it follows that he went to Berlin rather as a tourist and did not think about a diplomatic career. Locke stayed on the Continent for about a year. In letters to friends, John described in detail and vividly absolutely everything that attracted his attention, from the financial situation in Berlin to the christening of a newborn Berliner, at which he happened to be present.

In the same year, Locke returned to London. In dealing with the question of the relationship of church to state, Locke met with influential clergy and became close friends with some of them. One of his friends took up an important post in Dublin and offered him a prominent position in the spiritual hierarchy in Ireland. This position was most attractive to the pious Locke, but modesty forced him to refuse, he considered himself insufficiently prepared for it at that time.

Constant concern for his own health led Locke early to study medicine. According to contemporaries, he soon became a skilled doctor, but, not wanting to practice medicine, he gave advice only to friends. Locke followed a strict diet. He drank only water and considered it a sure way to prolong life.

In 1666, Locke met Lord Anthony Ashley, who was suffering from an incomprehensible illness. Having made an accurate diagnosis, Locke advised the lord to have an operation and thereby saved his life. As a sign of gratitude, Lord Ashley invited Locke to visit him for the summer, and then invited him to settle in his house forever. Locke accepted this offer and continued to treat the lord and all members of his family. The duties of a house doctor did not prevent Locke from continuing his studies in philosophy and the natural sciences. Thanks to Anthony Ashley, John became interested in politics and theology. At the same time he continued to study science. In 1668, Locke was elected a member of the Royal Society of Natural Sciences, and in 1669 - a member of the Council of this society.

At the end of 1667, he writes to Boyle: "The position I now occupy has kept me from doing any further chemical experiments, although I feel that my hands itch to do this business some more." After meeting and getting close to the outstanding innovative physician Thomas Sidnham, he begins to write a treatise On the Art of Medicine (1669), in which he argues in defense of the experimental study of diseases. True, this treatise was not completed.

In 1668, Locke accompanied the Earl and Countess of Northumberland to France. After the earl's death, he returned to England earlier than he expected, and again settled in the house of Lord Ashley. The Lord entrusted him with the upbringing of his only son. Locke accepted his new responsibility responsibly. It is curious that it was he who picked up a beautiful, kind and intelligent wife for his pet.

On the advice of his friends, in 1671, Locke decides to carry out a thorough study of the cognitive abilities of the human mind and the steps that the mind takes in its movement towards knowledge.

“Once I had a small society, five or six people,” wrote Locke. “The conversation turned on subjects that had nothing to do with the content of the book. Watching the development of the conversation and the train of thought, I noticed that difficulties in conclusions were presented from all sides ", and tried to clarify to myself the reason for this, and found that it lies in insufficient acquaintance with the very properties of our cognitive faculty. I immediately communicated this idea to my friends; they found it just and wished it further development. I immediately conveyed to them that at the moment I was thinking about this subject, and aroused great interest in them; they persuaded me to study the laws of our thinking ... "

Locke conceived the idea of writing a book intended for readers who are not content with "a lazy life on the crumbs of solicited opinions," but are able to put "their own thinking abilities to work in finding and investigating the truth." It was "An Essay on the Human Mind". Locke worked on it for nineteen years.

In 1672 Lord Ashley became Lord Shaftesbury and Grand Chancellor of England. Locke, thanks to the patron, took the high post of secretary of the board for charitable affairs. He remained in this position until the end of 1673, that is, until the time when his patron again fell out of favor. The office ups and downs of Shaftesbury, like an echo, were reflected in the fate of the philosopher.

Locke went to France, to Montpellier, where he stayed from the end of 1675 to the middle of 1679. Here he improved his health and participated in philosophical discussions with the students of Descartes and Gassendi. Locke finally established himself in the idea that scholastic philosophy has outlived its time.

From Montpellier, he went to Paris, where he became very close friends with Justel, whose house at that time served as a refuge for all learned wanderers. In this hospitable house, Locke met Genelon, then a famous physician from Amsterdam, whose lectures on anatomy aroused general delight in Paris; here he met the famous painter Suanior, who sent him a copy from one of his paintings; the latter gave Locke great pleasure, because he loved painting and was an expert on it.

In 1679, Lord Shaftesbury again assumed the presidency of the council. Arriving in London, he immediately summoned his friend from abroad. However, soon Lord Shaftesbury once again fell out of favor with the king and emigrated to Holland.

Locke's position in London became precarious after Shaftesbury's departure. A philosopher tries to take refuge in Oxford. But here, too, he is persecuted. In 1683, following Shaftesbury, Locke emigrated to Holland.

Soon Shaftesbury died in Amsterdam.

For Locke, years of hard work began, a deep study of the ideas of Descartes and Gassendi, acquaintance with the Protestant movement in France and Holland. But there were also years of anxiety.

In 1685, the Duke of Monmouth and his party settled in Holland and began to prepare a coup d'état in England. The British government, having learned about his conspiracy, immediately sent an order to its envoy in The Hague to demand the extradition of several English subjects he suspected, including Locke. Leclerc, who knew Locke well, claims that the philosopher then had no connection with the Duke of Monmouth and did not believe in the success of his enterprise.

Documents of those years contain scrupulous reports of government agents reporting in England on every step of the philosopher.

At the end of 1684, Locke was in Utrecht; he came to Amsterdam only for a short time with the intention of leaving again for Utrecht, so that he would not be accidentally included among the conspirators. In Amsterdam, he learned that they demanded his extradition, and he unwittingly had to hide.

Locke continued to live in Amsterdam, but as a precaution, he only left the house at night. At the end of the year, he went to live with Genelon, but only in 1686 did he begin to show himself again during the day, because only by this time it finally became clear that he had nothing to do with the duke's plans. And in this troubled time, Locke wrote and published his letters "On Tolerance."

“It is hard to believe that a person out of a feeling of mercy would force someone to accept this or that faith by torture. If God wanted to force people to convert to any faith, then he would send Christ with legions of heavenly angels, and not a too zealous son of the church with his dragoons".

These letters were enthusiastically received in Holland, but the Oxford clergy answered them with pamphlets; to two of the pamphlets, Locke saw fit to reply in defense of religious tolerance. Twelve years later, a new pamphlet appeared on the same letters. Locke was very ill at the time. Despite this, in response to the last pamphlet, he began to write his fourth letter on religious tolerance, which, however, remained unfinished. Locke's capital work, An Essay on the Human Mind, was also drawing to a close. He himself made a short extract from it at the end of 1687. Leclerc translated it into French and published it in his "Library". This extract earned the approval of knowledgeable people, friends of the truth, and aroused in them a strong desire to see the whole work printed as soon as possible.

In 1688, the denouement came, putting an end to the Stuart monarchy, and along with Locke's wanderings. The so-called "glorious" revolution of 1688 took place - William of Orange was proclaimed king of England on the terms of a sharp restriction of his power by Parliament. The foundations were laid for the political regime of the constitutional monarchy that exists in England to this day. Locke, who took an active part in preparing the coup of 1688, returned to his homeland at the beginning of 1689.

And again, along with the government service, he conducts a wide scientific and literary activity. He can be seen in the Royal Society, and in the club of supporters of religious tolerance, and in conversation with I. Newton. His first printed work, published in England in 1689, was "Letter on Toleration". Then "An Essay on Human Reason", "Two Treatises on State Government" and "Second Letter on Tolerance" (1690), "Third Letter on Tolerance" (1692), "Some Thoughts on Education" (1693), "The Reasonableness of Christianity" are published. (1695) with continuation in the form of polemical additions.

The first "Treatise" on state government is devoted to criticism of the feudal-theocratic concept of the divine origin of the power of the king, set forth in R. Filmer's book "Patriarch, or the Natural Power of Kings" (1680). In the second "Treatise" Locke theoretically justifies the political upheaval that took place during the "glorious" revolution.

In "Letters on religious tolerance" and "The rationality of Christianity" he defends the idea of separation of church and state and religious tolerance. It suggests the need for a separation between the civil and religious spheres. Civil authority cannot lay down laws in the religious sphere. As for religion, it must not interfere with the actions of civil authority, exercised by a social contract between the people and the secular state.

The appearance of "Experience" made a real sensation in England. The government offered Locke the position of Secretary of Trade and the Colonies. He held this position until his failing health required removal from London. The attacks of an old disease, asthma, intensified so much that they forced him to ask for his resignation from the king. This request greatly upset Wilhelm. The king often talked with the philosopher about state affairs and highly appreciated his advice. Locke made the best use of the king's confidence and in one of these sincere conversations openly expressed his opinion about university education, which at that time was in great need of reform, Locke also explained to the king all the harm of the scholastic trend in science.

William of Orange, although an ardent Calvinist, was very tolerant, fully sharing Locke's views on this subject. In 1695, Locke wrote an essay "On the Reasonableness of the Christian Religion", which drew him back into politics and aroused again the hatred of the scholastics for him. Oxford University decided to prevent the distribution of Locke's writings wherever possible.

Locke's health deteriorated markedly. He leaves London for White, a place in the county of Essex. The philosopher stops at the house of the knight Meshem, to whom the daughter of his friend Cudworth, known for writings of spiritual content, was married. Lady Dameris Mesham completely replaced his daughter, and she undoubtedly occupies a prominent place in the biography of the philosopher. She received the most rigorous religious upbringing. Locke's ideas captivated her mind, and his piety inspired her deep respect. Lady Mesham even brought up her children in the spirit of Locke; the philosopher dedicated the last edition of his "Thoughts on Education" to her.

Life in the Meshem household was quite in keeping with Locke's taste and character, and besides, he was the most respected member of this family. The last years of his life passed quite serenely. He not only reaped well-deserved laurels, but realized that he had brought great benefits to mankind. In the house of the Meshems, everything was permeated with his influence, and he could see and appreciate all its beneficial effects. Locke at this time was preparing for the publication of "Experience" and other works. The Experience went through six editions during Locke's lifetime.

The philosopher also spent a lot of time in correspondence with friends, whom he had many in England, Holland and France. He corresponded with Leibniz, Newton. London acquaintances often visited him at Mesham's house, and most often - his former student, the philosopher Shaftesbury.

In the last year of his life, he almost lost his hearing, this was his greatest misfortune. The philosopher, in despair, wrote to one of his friends that he would rather be blind than deaf, since deafness prevents him from talking with people.

On the eve of his death, Locke told Lady Mesham: “I am convinced that earthly life is only a preparation for a better life. I have lived a lot in the world and, thank God, was happy, but still I look at this life as something in itself vain and empty in itself."

By nightfall, he became much worse, in the morning he was put in a chair and transferred to his office. After resting for a while, he asked Lady Mesham, who was reciting the psalms to herself, to read them aloud. The great thinker listened to her reading with great tension until his death. Locke died on October 28, 1704, at the age of 73.

Friends buried the philosopher near his last dwelling, and his monument was decorated with the following epitaph, written in Latin:

"Stop, passerby! John Locke lies here. If you ask what kind of person he was, this monument will answer you - Locke was a man who knew how to be content with a little. He was brought up by science and went so far that he could serve only one truth. You you will be convinced of this by studying his writings, from them you will learn more about him than from eulogies. His virtues argued with his modesty, and he would not dare to put himself as a model for you. His shortcomings are buried with him. "

This epitaph is most likely written by Lady Mesh. According to another version - by Locke himself. Russell in his "History of Western Philosophy" called George Locke the most successful of all philosophers, since his views were understood and welcomed by many of his contemporaries.

During Locke's lifetime, England was occupied with radical political reforms aimed at limiting the power of the king, creating a parliamentary form of government, eliminating authoritarianism and ensuring religious freedom. Locke is the embodiment of these aspirations both in politics and in philosophy.

The main purpose of Locke's main work, An Essay on the Human Mind (1690), is to investigate the origin, validity, and scope of human knowledge. He describes the philosopher's task as that of a scavenger who removes rubbish from our knowledge. Locke argues that all human knowledge - mathematical, logical, metaphysical, etc. - is not innate, but has an experimental origin. Even the logical laws of identity and contradiction are unknown to children and savages.

"Ideas and concepts are not born with us, just like the arts and sciences," wrote Locke. There are no innate moral principles either. He believes that the great principle of morality (the golden rule) is more "praised than observed."

He also denies the innateness of the idea of God, it also arises empirically. Locke seeks to prove the inconsistency of the innate ideas thesis. The human soul is a kind of blank sheet of paper on which experience writes its information about the world, on which reflections about it are based.

In two treatises on government, Locke formulated his understanding of the natural and civil states. In the state of nature, people are free, equal and independent. According to Locke, natural man is characterized by property and selfishness, and therefore individualism. But at the same time, everyone should have the same rights and obligations. From this follows the thesis of freedom as a result of the contract. In society, the natural law prevails, according to which no one has the right to limit another in life, health, freedom, property. The power of the ruler is also dependent on natural law. And if one party violates the contract, for example, the ruler, then the other also has the right to refuse the obligations assumed.

Locke was the first to put forward the idea of the division of the supreme power into legislative, executive and federal. Legislative power belongs to Parliament, executive power to the army and the court, and federal power to the king and his ministers. Locke actually acts as a theorist of constitutional regimes.

Part of Locke's political philosophy was ethics, the treatment of good and evil as paths to pleasure or pain. According to Locke, the greatest pleasure and benefit are achieved with the help of private, personal property, the rights to which are inseparable from a person. In private property and labor, Locke saw the basis of civilization.

In his "Experience" Locke argued that good is that which gives lasting pleasure and lessens pain. This is the happiness of man. At the same time, Locke emphasizes that moral goodness is the voluntary subordination of the human will to the laws of both society and nature, which are in the divine will - the true basis of morality.

Harmony between private and public interests is achieved by prudent and pious conduct.

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Basically, our site is dedicated to the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (his thoughts, ideas, works and life), but in philosophy everything is connected, therefore, it is difficult to understand one philosopher without reading all the others at all.
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John Locke is an outstanding philosopher of the 17th century, who had a significant impact on the development of Western philosophy. Prior to Locke, Western philosophers based their views on the teachings of Plato and other idealists, according to which the immortal soul of man is a means of receiving information directly from the Cosmos. Its presence allows a person to be born with a ready-made baggage of knowledge, and he no longer needed to learn.

Locke's philosophy refuted both this idea and the very existence of an immortal soul.

Facts from the biography

John Locke was born in England in 1632. His parents adhered to Puritan views, which the future philosopher did not share. After graduating with honors from Westminster School, Locke became a teacher. While teaching Greek and rhetoric to students, he himself continued to study, paying special attention to the natural sciences: biology, chemistry and medicine.

Locke was also interested in political and legal issues. The socio-economic situation in the camp prompted him to join the opposition movement. Locke becomes a close friend of Lord Ashley Cooper - a relative of the king and head of the opposition movement.

In an effort to take part in the reformation of society, he gives up his teaching career. Locke moves to the Cooper estate and, together with him and several nobles who shared their revolutionary views, is preparing a palace coup.

The coup attempt becomes a turning point in Locke's biography. It turns out to be a failure, and Locke, along with Cooper, is forced to flee to Holland. Here, for the next few years, he devotes all his time to the study of philosophy and writes his best works.

Cognition as a result of the presence of consciousness

Locke believed that this is the unique ability of the human brain to perceive, remember and display reality. A born baby is a blank sheet of paper, which does not yet have impressions and consciousness. It will be formed during life, based on sensory images - impressions received through the senses.

Attention! According to Locke, every idea is a product of human thought, which appeared due to already existing things.

The main qualities of things

Locke approached the creation of each theory from the standpoint of evaluating the qualities of things and phenomena. Every thing has primary and secondary qualities.

Primary qualities include objective data about a thing:

the form;
density;
the size;
amount;
ability to move.

These qualities are inherent in every object, and focusing on them, a person makes his impression of each thing.

Secondary qualities include impressions generated by the senses:

vision;
hearing;
sensations.

Attention! Interacting with objects, people receive information about them, thanks to the images that arise on the basis of sensory impressions.

What is property

Locke adhered to the concept that property is the result of labor. And it belongs to the person who invested this work. So, if a person planted a garden on the land of a nobleman, then the collected fruits belong to him, and not to the owner of the land. A person should own only the property that he received by his labor. Therefore, property inequality is a natural phenomenon and it cannot be eradicated.

Basic principles of knowledge

Locke's theory of knowledge is based on the postulate: "There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in sensation." It means that any knowledge is the result of perception, personal subjective experience.

According to the degree of evidence, the philosopher divided knowledge into three types:

initial - gives knowledge about one thing;
demonstrative - allows you to build conclusions by comparing concepts;
higher (intuitive) - evaluates the conformity and inconsistency of concepts directly with the mind.

According to John Locke, philosophy gives a person the opportunity to determine the purpose of all things and phenomena, to develop science and society.

Pedagogical Principles for the Education of Gentlemen

Natural philosophy - it included the exact and natural sciences.
Practical art - includes philosophy, logic, rhetoric, political and social sciences.
The doctrine of signs - unites all linguistic sciences, new concepts and ideas.

According to Locke's theory about the impossibility of naturally obtaining knowledge through the Cosmos and the forces of nature, a person masters the exact sciences only through teaching. Most people are not familiar with basic mathematics. They have to resort to intense mental work for a long time to learn the mathematical postulates. This approach is also true for the development of natural sciences.

Reference! The thinker also believed that the concepts of morality and morality are inherited. Therefore, people cannot learn the norms of behavior and become full-fledged members of society outside the family.

The educational process should take into account the individual characteristics of the child. The task of the educator is to gradually teach the future gentleman all the necessary skills, which include mastering the entire spectrum of sciences and norms of behavior in society. Locke advocated separate education for children from noble families and children from commoners. The latter had to be trained in specially created working schools.

Political views

The political views of John Locke were anti-absolutist: he advocated the change of the current regime and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. In his opinion, freedom is the natural and normal state of the individual.

Locke rejected the ideas of Hobbes about the "war of all against all" and believed that the original concept of private property was formed among people much earlier than the establishment of state power.

Trade and economic relations should be built on a simple scheme of exchange and equality: each person seeks his own benefit, produces a product and exchanges it for another. Forcible seizure of goods is a violation of the law.

Locke was the first thinker to take part in the creation of the founding act of state. He drafted the text of the constitution for North Carolina, which in 1669 was approved and approved by the members of the popular assembly. Locke's ideas were innovative and promising: to this day, all North American constitutional practice is based on his teachings.

Individual rights in the state

Locke considered three inalienable rights of the individual that every citizen has, regardless of his social status, as the main legal state:

for life;
to freedom;
on property.

The constitution of the state should be created with an eye on these rights and be a guarantor of the preservation and expansion of human freedom. Violation of the right to life is any attempt to enslave: forcible coercion of a person to any activity, appropriation of his property.

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Religious views

Locke was a staunch supporter of the idea of separating church and state. In his work The Reasonableness of Christianity, he describes the need for religious tolerance. Every citizen (with the exception of atheists and Catholics) is guaranteed freedom of religion.

John Locke considers religion not the basis of morality, but a means of strengthening it. Ideally, a person should not be guided by church dogmas, but independently come to a broad religious tolerance.

Education, law and statehood, which were relevant in the middle of the 17th century. He is the founder of a new political and legal doctrine, which later became known as the "doctrine of early bourgeois liberalism."

Biography

Locke was born in 1632 to a Puritan family. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church College. In college, he began his scientific career as a teacher of Greek and rhetoric. During this period, an acquaintance was made with the famous naturalist Robert Boyle. Together with him, Locke carried out metrological observations, deeply studied chemistry. Subsequently, John Locke seriously studied medicine and in 1668 became a member of the Royal Society of London.

In 1667, John Locke met Lord Ashley Cooper. This extraordinary man was in opposition to the royal court and criticized the existing government. John Locke leaves teaching and settles on the estate of Lord Cooper as his friend, companion and personal physician.

Political intrigues and a failed attempt make Lord Ashley hastily leave his native shores. Following him, John Locke emigrates to Holland. The main ideas that brought fame to the scientist were formed precisely in exile. The years spent in a foreign country turned out to be the most fruitful in Locke's career.

The changes that took place in England at the end of the 17th century allowed Locke to return to his homeland. The philosopher willingly works with the new government and for some time holds important positions under the new administration. The post of responsible for trade and colonies becomes the last in the career of a scientist. Lung disease forces him to retire, and he spends the rest of his life in the town of Ots, on the estate of his close friends.

Footprint in philosophy

The main philosophical work as "An Essay on Human Understanding". The treatise reveals the system of empirical (experimental) philosophy. The basis for conclusions is not logical conclusions, but actual experience. So says John Locke. The philosophy of such a plan was in conflict with the existing system of worldview. In this work, the scientist claims that sensory experience is the basis for studying the surrounding world, and only with the help of observation can reliable, real and obvious knowledge be obtained.

Footprint in religion

The scientific works of the philosopher also concern the arrangement of religious institutions that existed at that time in England. The manuscripts "Defence of Nonconformism" and "An Essay on Religious Tolerance", authored by John Locke, are known. The main ideas were outlined precisely in these unpublished treatises, and the entire system of the structure of the church, the problem of freedom of conscience and religion was presented in the “Message on religious tolerance”.

In this work, the work secures for every person the right to a scientist calls on state institutions to recognize the choice of religion as an inalienable right of every citizen. The true church in its activities, according to the scientist, should be merciful and compassionate towards dissidents; the authority of the church and the teachings of the church must suppress violence in any form. However, the tolerance of believers should not extend to those who do not recognize the legal laws of the state, deny society and the very existence of the Lord, John Locke believes. The main ideas of the "Message on religious tolerance" are the equality of rights of all religious communities and the separation of state power from the church.

"The Reasonableness of Christianity as Presented in Holy Scripture" is a later essay by the philosopher, in which he affirms the unity of God. Christianity, first of all, is a set of moral standards that every person must adhere to, John Locke believes. The works of the philosopher in the field of religion enriched religious teachings with two new directions - English deism and latitudinarism - the doctrine of religious tolerance.

Trace in the theory of state and law

J. Locke outlined his vision of the structure of a just society in his work “Two treatises on state government”. The basis for the composition was the doctrine of the emergence of the state from the "natural" society of people. According to the scientist, at the beginning of its existence, mankind did not know wars, everyone was equal and "no one had more than another." However, in such a society there were no regulatory bodies that would eliminate disagreements, resolve property disputes, and administer a fair trial. In order to ensure that they formed a political community - the state. The peaceful formation of state institutions, based on the consent of all people, is the basis for the creation of a state system. So says John Locke.

The main ideas of the state transformation of society consisted in the formation of political and judicial bodies that would protect the rights of all people. The state retains the right to use force to protect itself from outside intrusion, as well as to control compliance with domestic laws. The theory of John Locke, set forth in this essay, asserts the right of citizens to remove a government that does not fulfill its functions or abuses power.

Footprint in pedagogy

“Thoughts on Education” is a work by J. Locke, in which he argues that the environment has a decisive influence on the child. At the beginning of its development, the child is under the influence of parents and educators, who are a moral model for him. As the child matures, he gains freedom. The philosopher also paid attention to the physical education of children. Education, as was said in the essay, should be based on the use of practical knowledge necessary for life in bourgeois society, and not on the study of scholastic sciences that have no practical use. This work was criticized by the Bishop of Worcester, with whom Locke repeatedly entered into controversy, defending his views.

Mark on history

Philosopher, jurist, religious figure, teacher and publicist - all this is John Locke. The philosophy of his treatises met the practical and theoretical needs of the new century - the century of Enlightenment, discoveries, new sciences and new state formations.

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